Growing grain crops. Wheat, rye, oats, barley, rice and buckwheat. Mother Rye. Origin, history, description and cultural and economic significance of rye Sprouted rye

Rye is a genus of annual or perennial herbaceous plants of the flowering department, monocotyledonous class, order of cereals, grass family (bluegrass) (Secale).

You can distinguish these crops from each other already at the stage of small sprouts: if you pull out a small rye plant and look at its roots, you will find a root divided into four parts, a root, but in wheat, the root is divided into three primary roots.
The color of the leaves of rye and wheat also differs - rye usually has bluish-gray leaves, while in wheat they are bright green, however, this feature is observed only before the ears ripen.
Ears of rye and wheat also have differences in structure: in rye, the inflorescence is represented by a two-row spike, the wheat inflorescence is a complex spike.
Wheat flowers are self-pollinating, while rye is wind-pollinated.
Wheat was cultivated by man much earlier than rye.
If we consider these cereals in terms of species diversity, then wheat has the largest number of species and varietal affiliations among the currently known cereals. Rye cannot boast of such a number of species.
In rye grain, in addition to standard carbohydrates, proteins and various dietary fibers that are also present in wheat grain, there is also a set of vitamins of the PP, E, B groups. That is why rye bread is considered a very useful dietary product.
Rye is less picky about the quality of the soil, so its fibrous roots penetrate 2 meters deep, receiving the substances necessary for growth. This feature makes it possible to sow rye on sandy, "acidic" or infertile soils, obtaining consistently high yields. Wheat is more "capricious" and demanding on the quality of the soil.
Rye crops are resistant to frost and severe droughts, and wheat often freezes out at low temperatures and loves moderate moisture.

A hybrid of wheat and rye is called triticale:

Hybrid of wheat and rye (triticale)

Grains: rye, wheat, barley, oats, triticale (a hybrid of wheat and rye)

Rye and barley: differences

Barley sprout has 5-8 primary roots, rye has 4.
A leaf of cereals at its base has bilateral horns or, as they are called differently, ears. In rye, they are short, devoid of cilia hairs. Barley ears are very large, have the shape of a crescent.
At the rye ear, on each ledge of the rod, there are two flowers; on the rod ledges of barley, three graceful flowers “sit”.
Spikelet scales of rye are narrow, with a pronounced single nerve-groove. Barley scales are slightly wider, linear, without a visible groove.

Types of rye, names and photos

The modern classification distinguishes 9 types of rye:

mountain rye ( Secale montanum)
Wild (forest) rye ( Secale sylvestre)
Rye Vavilov ( Secale vavilovii)
Rye Derzhavin ( Secale derzhavinii)
Anatolian rye ( Secale anatolicum)
African rye ( Secale africanum)
Sowing rye (cultivated) ( Secale cereale)
Rye Secale ciliatiglume
Weed field rye ( secale segetale)

A more detailed description of the varieties of rye:

mountain rye ( Secale montanum)

perennial plant 80-120 cm high. The species of rye, listed in the Red Book, is distributed by small populations in Abkhazia, the Caucasus and the Krasnodar Territory, as well as in southern Europe and in the countries of South-Western and Central Asia.

Wild (forest) rye ( Secale sylvestre)

an annual cereal growing in European countries, Asia Minor and Central Asia, the Caucasus and western Siberia.

Rye Vavilov ( Secale vavilovii)

an annual plant growing in Iran, Turkey, Armenia, Iraq, Iran, the Caucasus.

Rye Derzhavin ( Secale derzhavinii)

a perennial fodder crop created by Professor Derzhavin by crossing seed and mountain rye.

Anatolian rye ( Secale anatolicum)

perennial fodder grass, common in the foothills of the Transcaucasus, the Balkans, Greece, Bulgaria, Iraq, Iran and the central part of Turkey (Anatolia). Used for grazing livestock and making hay.

African rye ( Secale africanum)

a type of rye that grows in the south of the African continent.

sowing rye or cultural ( Secale cereale)

one-year or two-year-old cereal, cultivated in the winter or spring way. A widespread culture of high food, agricultural and fodder purposes, uniting about 40 varieties. Cultivated in temperate latitudes in Russia, Germany, Poland, Scandinavian countries, Belarus, Ukraine, Canada, America and China.

Rye Secale ciliatiglume

a kind of rye that grows in Turkey, Iraq, Iran.

Weed field rye (secale segetale)

this species grows in the countries of Central Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran, Iraq, and the Caucasus.

Rye: benefits, medicinal properties, vitamins and minerals

Rye is one of the most useful cereal plants, a unique dietary product, a storehouse of vitamins and minerals that are indispensable for the human body. The composition of rye grains includes:

B vitamins involved in basic metabolic processes, preventing aging, supporting immunity;
vitamins A and PP, which protect the body from aging and maintain the integrity of the cell structure;
folic acid, which has a general strengthening effect on the body and supports the work of the heart and blood vessels;
sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus;
lysine and threonine, amino acids important for tissue growth and repair;
germinated rye grains contain zinc, selenium, iron and manganese.

The use of rye products, decoctions and preparations containing rye can successfully fight many dangerous diseases:

oncological diseases;
arthritis, arthrosis and inflammation of bone tissue;
cardiovascular diseases;
diseases of the liver, gallbladder, kidneys and genitourinary system;
diseases of the pancreas and thyroid gland, including diabetes mellitus;
allergies, bronchial asthma;
skin diseases.

The most valuable rye flour is wholemeal (unrefined, with a grain shell), it retains all beneficial features whole grain.

Rye contraindications

Rye contains gluten protein, which is contraindicated for people with gluten intolerance.
Also, rye is contraindicated for people who have gastritis with high acidity and ulcers of the stomach and intestines.

The use of rye and useful properties

Rye is a very valuable and useful cereal, which is widely used in cooking and in the field of medicine. Various and very healthy cereals are cooked from rye (whole) grains, dietary bread is baked from rye flour, and they also create the main component for the traditional and delicious Russian drink - kvass. In Rus', slightly sour and original in taste, rye flour was used in the preparation of pancakes, holiday pies or gingerbread.

In some areas, “green porridge” is still prepared from young rye grains, which is considered an indispensable dish on the table of newlyweds and symbolizes happiness and prosperity.

In the cities of Canada and in some states of America, whiskey is made from rye.

Rye straw is used as feed for livestock or as bedding for animals, it is used to mulch the soil under strawberries and is used in growing mushrooms.

Rye straw is needed as a raw material for the manufacture of adobe bricks. Only with rye straw amazingly delicious pickled apples are obtained.

In the field of medicine, infusions and decoctions are prepared from useful cereals, extracts are made from rye grains. This cereal has a general strengthening, tonic effect on the body, stabilizes the functions of the gastrointestinal tract, softens coughs, relieves rheumatoid conditions, heals abscesses and relieves tumors.

Rye bran is useful in the treatment of increased blood pressure, anemia, diseases of the cardiovascular system.

Sprouted rye - benefits and vitamins

Rye sprouts are a plant product with amazing properties that competently and very quickly compensate for the lack of minerals and vitamins in the human body. These juicy, slightly sour-tasting sprouts will be a great addition to salads, cereals or vegetable vinaigrettes. Sprouted rye perfectly stimulates the intestines, normalizing its disturbed microflora and relieving constipation, cleanses the body of accumulated toxins and excess cholesterol.

Rye sprouts

Sprouted grains of rye are indicated for gastroenterological problems, normalize the functions of the hematopoietic and nervous systems, help strengthen the immune system and increase metabolism. Sprouted rye is recommended for use by patients diabetes, pregnant women, allergy sufferers, the elderly and people suffering from a high degree of obesity. Sprouted rye has a beneficial effect on the organs of vision, skin, hair and teeth. The only contraindication for eating rye sprouts is gluten intolerance.

How to germinate rye at home?

For sprouting rye, you should choose grains that you are absolutely sure of. Healthy, not treated with chemicals and thoroughly washed rye grains must be spread out in a thin layer (no more than 1 cm) on a cotton cloth laid in a container, covered with a piece of the same cloth on top. Then the prepared grain is poured with water at room temperature so that it covers the grain by 1 cm. The plate can be placed in a dark place at a temperature not exceeding 22-24 degrees.

After 1-2 days, tender sprouts of rye 1-2 mm long will hatch, which, after washing with cold water, can be eaten.

Growing winter and spring rye: sowing, fertilizing, care

For growing rye as a crop, an elevated open area is chosen; maximum lighting is necessary for the full ripening of the grains.

For winter and spring rye, organic fertilizers (manure, compost) and mineral fertilizers (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) are required.

Sowing winter rye spend one and a half months before the onset of stable cold weather. To do this, sorted seeds with high purity and germination rates are selected and treated to avoid the occurrence of diseases. Seeds are planted in rows pre-designated after 15 cm to a depth of 5-7 cm.

Sowing spring rye carried out in the spring, at the earliest possible time, in dug up and fertilized soil. Seeds germinate at low positive temperatures, and seedlings are not afraid of frost.

Rye is an excellent green manure

Rye is considered one of the most valuable siderates after mustard. An aggressive plant does not tolerate competitors and, thanks to its rapid growth, effectively suppresses annual and perennial weeds, and also does not allow pathogens to develop. Rye has an excellent structuring effect on heavy, clay soils, loosening the soil with deep, powerful roots and enriching the soil with nitrogen.

When and how to sow rye as green manure?

As a green manure, rye is sown in early September, evenly scattering the seeds over the entire plane of the plot, or sown in rows, every 15 cm. The sowing rate is 2 kg per 1 hundred square meters. Before the onset of frost, rye seedlings grow up to 20-25 cm. In winter, the grass retains snow and prevents the soil from freezing to a great depth. In spring, seedlings quickly gain green mass. The beginning of heading is the most favorable time for incorporating rye into the soil, when the plant contains the maximum amount of nutrients. Then the rye is crushed and buried to a depth of no more than 4-5 cm, otherwise the green mass may turn sour. After 2 weeks, the main crop can be planted on a weed-free, loose, fertile soil. The only drawback of such agricultural technology is that rye significantly dries out the soil, so plants planted after it need regular watering.

A familiar and simple cereal, however, can be considered a rather interesting plant. At the end of the last century, Luxembourg was the world leader in bowel cancer. After adding bran and rye bread to the diet of sick people, the city quickly found itself at the bottom of this terrible list.
Tied in a bunch of spikelets of rye in Rus', they drove away evil forces from newborns and saved them from the “black eye”, laying the cereal dried on the stove under the mattress in the cradle.
Rye flour is an excellent remedy for abscesses and abscesses: a cake from it is applied to a sore spot, and relief comes in a day or two.

Ecofarmer offers seeds and grains for sprouting grown in Altai and in ecologically clean regions of the South of Russia. The grains are cleaned of weeds without the use of heat treatment, carefully sorted and securely packaged by Ecofarmer. We have been studying issues for several years healthy eating and offer customers products whose benefits have been personally verified.

In the scientific world, the study of the effect of sprouts on health began relatively recently - in the middle of the 20th century. But since ancient times, it has been known that folk healers and healers used sprouted seeds and grains as a remedy for many ailments.

Germinated sprouts contain a great energy potential. When the grain begins to grow, it changes chemical composition- Nutrients from a dormant state pass into the active phase. Proteins become amino acids, fats become fatty acids, carbohydrates become simple sugars. The content of vitamins and antioxidants is many times increased. In a short time (1-2 days) there is a powerful enrichment of seedlings with useful substances exclusively due to the life-giving forces of nature. Sprouts of germinated seeds and grains are an active stimulator of the vital activity of the whole organism.

The introduction of fresh sprouts into the diet starts the processes of self-purification, improves digestion, sexual function, increases hemoglobin, and ensures normal metabolism. Sprouted seeds treat eczema and stomach ulcers, purify the blood, strengthen the immune system, ensure normal metabolism and full-fledged work. nervous system, restore visual acuity, improve the most important functions of the body and much more. It is difficult to find a similar natural product, whose richness and benefits would be compared with seed sprouts. This is a biogenic food capable of giving the strength of growing life to the human body!

Sprouted rye sprouts contain many useful elements, plant hormones and oils. They are rich in potassium (425 mg/100 g), calcium (58 mg/100 g), phosphorus (292 mg/100 g), magnesium (120 mg/100 g), manganese (2.7 mg/100 g), iron (4.2 mg / 100 g), zinc (2.5 mg / 100 g), there is also fluorine, silicon, sulfur, vanadium, chromium, copper, selenium, molybdenum. And the folic acid content makes sprouted rye an especially important food for expectant mothers. Folic acid affects the growth and division of cells, the processes of hematopoiesis, the development of tissues and organs of the fetus. Folic acid participates in the synthesis of amino acids, including ribonucleic acid, which contributes to the easy and complete absorption of iron, without which, in turn, the formation of hemoglobin is impossible. Regular consumption of rye sprouts contributes to increased activity and efficiency. They compensate for the lack of vitamins and minerals, vitamin and mineral deficiencies, normalize the microflora, stimulate the intestines, help cleanse the body of toxins.

Rye sprouts have no restrictions in compatibility with other products, they are useful to use with fruits and berries, vegetables, add to desserts, salads, etc. General healing occurs due to the energy of the germinating seed. The introduction of germinated sprouts into a regular diet starts the rejuvenation of the whole organism!

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Photo. Secale cereale L. - Spring rye

systematic position.

Family Poaceae Barnhart, genus Secale L., species Secale cereale L. - Cherepanov S.K., 1995.
The intraspecific classification of rye proposed by V.D. Kobylyansky includes five subspecies: subsp. cereale, subsp. vavilovii (Grossh.) Kobyl., subsp. tetraploidum Kobyl., subsp. derzhavinii (Tzvel.) Kobyl., subsp. tsitsinii Kobyl.

Biology and morphology.

2n=14. An annual herbaceous plant. It has a fibrous root system, consisting of 3-4 germinal (primary) roots formed during seed germination, and nodal (secondary) roots extending from underground stem nodes in the zone of the tillering node. The main primary tillering node is located at a depth of 0.5-2 cm, and it is associated with the length of the mesocotyl (underground internode) connecting the grain with the node. The resistance of rye varieties to root lodging largely depends on the degree of development of the root system and the strength of its adhesion to the soil. The stem is a hollow straw, consisting of 3-7 internodes separated from each other by nodes. Forms with a completed upper internode were found. Plant height of cultivated rye varieties is 80-180 cm, in various forms it varies from 10-15 to 300 cm. There are forms without a wax coating. The wax coating does not have a protective effect against penetration into the tissues of the stem of pathogens of fungal diseases. When mature, the stems are yellow or stained with anthocyanin to varying degrees. The surface of the stem is bare, slightly pubescent under the spike, but forms without pubescence are often found. The leaf consists of a sheath tightly covering the stem, a linear-lanceolate leaf blade with a tongue and ears at the base. The tongue (ligula) of rye is horizontally cut off and is located at the transition point of the sheath into the leaf blade; tightly fitting the stem, it prevents the ingress of moisture and insects. Forms of plants with an oblique tongue and without a tongue (ligulless rye) are distinguished. It has been established that the size of the second leaf from the top can be used to judge the foliage of plants, since its size is equal to or close to the size of the average leaf. Long narrow leaves are characteristic of more drought-resistant forms, wide short ones are most often found in low-productive relatively late-ripening forms prone to powdery mildew. The inflorescence is a complex spike of an unfinished type (without an apical spikelet). On each ledge of a segment of the spike rod, one two, less often three flower spikelets are placed. The two lower flowers are sessile, the third flower is pedunculated. Each productive stem usually forms one spike. The stalk of rye is not branched, but there are branched hereditarily conditioned forms. The color of the ear in cultivated varieties is white (straw-yellow), in old local populations there are red-red ears, in weed-field rye - white, red-red, brown, black. The ears of rye are covered with a wax coating, and the degree of expression can be different, depending on the varietal characteristics and climatic conditions. A strong wax coating is typical for varieties created in areas with hot summers, as it protects the ear from overheating, reflecting some of the falling sunlight. The fruit of rye is a grain of oblong or oval shape, laterally compressed. The color of rye grain, depending on the combination of color, thickness and transparency of the seed and fruit coats and the color of the aleurone layer, can be white, yellow, green in various shades, blue, purple, brown. Weight of 1000 grains 30-45 g.

Ecology.

Winter rye is winter-hardy (in winters with little snow it tolerates frosts of 30-35°C), rather drought-resistant plant. Since winter hardiness is a complex trait, and includes frost resistance, resistance to weathering, often associated with resistance to snow mold, as well as resistance to ice crust and bulging, it can be improved through agrotechnical measures (amelioration, high-quality tillage, timely sowing). Frost-resistant plants differ in a number of morphobiological features. They have narrow and short rosette leaves of a small cell structure and a flattened shape of the bush, a thicker outer wall of the epidermis, a short mesocotyl and, accordingly, a deeper bedding of the tillering node. Frost-resistant plants are characterized by slow growth in autumn period , a relatively higher concentration of dry substances in the cell sap and their more economical use for growth processes and respiration. The vegetation period is 120-150 days (autumn 45-50 days and spring-summer 75-100 days). Rye grows on various soils, except for waterlogged ones, the best soils are chernozems. Allogamous (cross-pollinated) wind-pollinated plant. Its flowering under favorable conditions occurs 7-10 days after earing. In varieties of cultivated rye, the anthers usually crack after 1-2 minutes. after leaving the flower, and the pollen is carried by the wind. A feature of rye, like all wind-pollinated plants, is the large amount of pollen produced (up to 60 thousand pollen grains in one flower). In rare cases, the anthers crack before completely exiting the flower, and self-pollination occurs. The flower is open for 12-30 minutes, but the pollen from it spills out in 2-4 minutes. The flowering of the ear begins in the middle part and, gradually spreading up and down, lasts 4-5 days, with the upper flowers fading before the lower ones. Each plant blooms for 7-8 days, the spike of the main stem blooms first. Under field conditions, at optimum air temperature (12-15°C), flowering begins at 5-6 am in the southern and central regions of the Russian Federation and at 7-10 am in the northeast and northwest. During the day, 2-3 maximums are observed, but the most intensive flowering occurs in the morning hours. During the period of mass flowering, a pollen cloud forms over the sowing of rye in warm, dry weather. The viability of pollen in direct sunlight lasts for 15 minutes, in the shade - 4-8 hours, under artificial conditions at low temperature and high humidity - 1-3 days. In rainy cloudy weather, pollen is poorly carried by the wind and does not fall on the flowers, as a result of which the through-grain sharply increases, which reaches 30-40% or more. Pimples can also be caused by genetic factors. The self-fertility of rye is insignificant and averages 0-6%. From the moment pollen hits the stigma of the pistil to the penetration of the pollen tube into the cavity of the embryo sac, about 30 minutes pass, and the entire fertilization process lasts 6-8 hours. Unfertilized ovaries retain the ability to pollinate and fertilize for a relatively long time - up to 14 days. It has been established that the decisive factors for the high yield of winter rye are the number of productive stems per 1 m2 and the weight of grain per ear. Stem density and the number of productive stems per unit area are adaptive features that characterize the biological resistance of varieties, depending on winter hardiness, drought resistance, resistance to diseases and pests, etc. Resistance to lodging of rye plants, as well as other grain crops, is associated with the height of plants and the strength of the stem, the power of the root system and the mass of the ear. 4 types of rye short stem have been established. The ability of rye to germinate in the ear and the activity of alpha-amylase associated with it are related to varietal characteristics. Forage varieties of rye used for green fodder and hay in the spring-summer period are characterized by rapid growth, high bushiness, good foliage, ability to grow back after mowing, and high nutritional value of green mass. They have a thin non-coarse straw. They are resistant to lodging and respond well to treatment with retardants, which increase resistance to lodging during their seed production.

Spreading.

In terms of area under crops, rye ranks eighth in world agriculture after wheat, rice, barley, corn, oats, millet and sorghum. Rye, mainly winter (99.8%), is cultivated in almost all agro-climatic zones Russian Federation(Volga, Volga-Vyatka, Central and Ural economic regions), in Belarus, Ukraine, the Baltic countries. In culture from 1-2 millennium BC in the basin of the Dnieper, Dniester, Oka and in Switzerland, Hungary, Denmark. Spring rye is grown in small areas in Eastern Siberia (Transbaikalia) and mountain areas in Central Asia and Transcaucasia. The main producers of rye are also Poland, Germany, it occupies a significant place in the agriculture of the Scandinavian countries, Canada and the USA. In 2001 the rye sowing area in farms of all categories in the Russian Federation amounted to 3636 thousand hectares (7.7% of the sown area of all grain crops). Currently, about 50 varieties of winter rye and 1 variety of spring rye (Onokhoiskaya) have been released. The main varieties of winter rye: Bezenchukskaya 87, Valdai, Volkhova, Vyatka 2, Dymka, Kirovskaya 89, Orlovskaya 9, Radon, Saratovskaya 5, Saratovskaya 7, Talovskaya 15, Talovskaya 29, Talovskaya 33, Chulpan, Era. Breeding institutions: North-Western Research Institute of Agriculture of the Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Krasnoyarsk Research Institute of Agriculture, Samara Research Institute of Agriculture named after N.M. Tulaykova, Stavropol Research Institute of Agriculture, Zonal Research Institute of Agriculture of the North-East named after N.V. Rudnitsky, All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of leguminous and cereal crops, Ural Research Institute of Agriculture, Tatar Research Institute of Agriculture, Siberian Research Institute of Agriculture, Bashkir Research Institute of Agriculture.

Economic value.

Rye is the second grain crop after wheat. The grain contains 12-14% protein (lysine in the protein is about 4%). The technological qualities of rye grain are evaluated by resistance to activation of carbohydrate-amylase complex enzymes. The viscosity of the water-flour suspension is determined on an amylograph, and the falling number is determined on a Hagberg-Perten instrument or its modifications. Varieties used to improve the quality of flour must have amylograph readings over 600 units. and the falling number is more than 200 s. Varieties, the flour of which is suitable for baking bread in its pure form - respectively 300-600 units. and 140-200 s. Grain is used for the production of flour, starch, molasses, animal feed, etc. Green mass, hay and grain are fed to animals. Grown in a field crop rotation. The best predecessors are clean and busy fallow, annual and perennial grasses, flax. Fertilizers: 20-40 tons of manure, 20-30 kg N (for spring feeding), 60-90 kg P 2 O 5 and 40-60 kg K 2 O per 1 ha. It is sown in a narrow-row or ordinary row method, the sowing rate is 4.5-6 million viable seeds per 1 ha (200-250 kg), sowing depth is 4-6 cm. Harvested in a separate way and by direct combining. Grain yield is about 2 tons per 1 ha.

Literature.

State register of selection achievements approved for use. M. 2004. S.11-12
Zhukovsky P.M. Cultivated plants and their relatives. L. 1971
Private selection of field crops. Ed. Konovalova Yu.B. M.1990. pp.36-59
Cherepanov S.K. Vascular plants of Russia and neighboring states. SP-b. 1995. C 759-760

© Gashkova I.V.

Latin title.

There are two directions in flax growing in our country, the main one is the cultivation of flax for fiber and seeds. Oilseed flax is cultivated for oil production.

A variety of fabrics are produced from fiber flax - from coarse bag, technical and packaging to fine cambric and lace. Linen technical fabrics are used in many industries. Tarpaulins, drive belts, hoses, twisted threads, etc. are made from flax fiber. Linen yarn is stronger than cotton and wool and is second only to silk in this respect. Linen fabrics and products (linen, canvas, tablecloths, towels, etc.) are distinguished by great strength and beauty.

Short flax fiber (waste, tow, tow) is used as a cleaning and packaging material, and flax fire (stem wood after separation of the fiber) is used for the production of paper, construction fire slabs and insulating materials, as well as fuel.

Seeds of oil-bearing varieties of flax contain 35-45% oil, which is used in food, soap, paint, rubber and other industries.

Flaxseed cake, containing up to 30-36% protein and up to 32% digestible nitrogen-free substances, is a highly concentrated animal feed, especially for young animals. The nutritional value of 1 kg of linseed cake is 1.2 feed units, it contains about 280 g of digestible protein. Flax seeds are used in medicine, veterinary medicine.

The oldest historical centers of flax cultivation are the mountainous regions of India and China. For 4-5 thousand years BC. e. flax was grown in Egypt, Assyria and Mesopotamia. There is an assumption that cultivated flax comes from Southwest and East Asia (large-seeded forms - from the Mediterranean).

The cultivation of flax for fiber is widespread in the Netherlands, Belgium, France, England, the GDR, Czechoslovakia and other countries. In Japan, the USA, Canada, flax for fiber is cultivated on a small scale.

In 1987, fiber flax covered 0.97 million hectares in the CIS. The main areas of its cultivation for fiber (55% of the total area) are concentrated in most areas of the Non-Chernozem zone of the European part of our country. Recently, fiber flax crops have been expanded in the Baltic republics, in the north and west of Ukraine, in Western Siberia. Oilseed flax is much less common in the CIS (200,000 ha).

In our country, flax has been known since ancient times. In the XII century. it was cultivated in the Novgorod and Pskov principalities. Vologda, Pskov, Kostroma, Kashin flax are famous from time immemorial. In the XVI century. The first rope factory appeared in Russia. In 1711, Peter I issued a decree on the cultivation of flax in all provinces. State linen factories were created, where wide fabrics were woven for sails and other needs. At present, the Soviet Union occupies first place in world agriculture in the production of flax fiber.

Botanical characteristic . Of the 45 types of flax cultivated in our country (there are 200 species in the world), one species is of industrial importance - common, cultivated flax (Linum usitatissimum L.), from the flax family (Linaceae). In the Eurasian subspecies of this species, ssp. eurasiaticum Vav. et Ell - three varieties are known (Fig. 39).

Fiber flax (v. elongata) is cultivated mainly for fiber. Stem height from 60 to 175 cm, branching only in the upper part. There are few seed pods (with dense sowing 2-3 pods, on average 6-10). The productive (technical) part of the fiber flax stem starts from the location of the cotyledons to the first branch of the inflorescence. From this part, the most valuable flax fiber is obtained (up to 26-31%). Fiber flax is cultivated in areas with a moderately warm, humid and mild climate. The mass of 1000 seeds is 3-6 g. When they swell, they become slimy and absorb 100-180% of water.

Intermediate flax (v. untermedia) is cultivated mainly for seeds to produce oil. It occupies an intermediate position between fiber flax and curly flax. The stem is 55-65 cm high, less branched than that of the curly, but much shorter than that of the long-leaved.

Forms more bolls (15-25) than fiber flax. In terms of fiber quality and length, it is inferior to fiber flax. Fiber yield 16-18% (trepango - 13-14%). Mezheumok is common in the forest-steppe part of Ukraine, Kursk, Voronezh, Kuibyshev, Saratov regions, Bashkiria and Tatarstan, in the North Caucasus, partly in Siberia.

Curly flax, or horn (v. brevimulticaulia), is cultivated in the republics of Central Asia and Transcaucasia. It has a short (30-45 cm) branching stem with 35-50 bolls. Cultivated for seeds, from which oil is obtained (35-45%). The fiber is short, of low quality. The most suitable for oil flax are areas with relatively dry and warm summers with a predominance of sunny days.

The structure of the stem. Flax fiber. In the fiber flax harvest, about 75-80% is accounted for by stems, about 10-12% by seeds, and the same amount by chaff and other waste. Flax stalks contain 20-30% fiber, which consists of fiber (88-90%), pectin (6-7%) and waxy (3%) substances and ash (1-2%).

At the base of the fiber flax stem, the fiber is thick, coarse, partially lignified, and makes up about 12% of the mass of the corresponding part of the stem. Toward the middle part of the stem, the fiber content increases to 35%. This is the most valuable, thin, strong and long fiber, with the smallest cavity inside and thick walls. In the upper part, the amount of fiber decreases to 28-30% and its quality decreases: the fibers have a larger clearance and thinner walls.

High-quality fiber should be long, thin, without a large cavity, thin-layered, smooth, clean from the surface. The main indicators of its quality: length, strength, gloss, elasticity, softness, cleanliness from the fire, the absence of traces of rust and other diseases.

Biological features . Fiber flax works best in warm temperate regions with an even climate, with sufficient rainfall and cloudiness (in diffused light).

Flax grows favorably with moderate temperatures in spring and summer, with intermittent rain and cloudy weather. Flax sprouts well and grows at temperatures not exceeding 16-17 °C. Its seeds are able to germinate at 2-5°C, and seedlings tolerate frosts down to -3...-5°C. Heat(above 18-22 ° C) and sharp daily fluctuations inhibit flax, especially during the budding period, when it grows vigorously. The sum of active temperatures required for the full cycle of development is 1000-1300 °C, depending on the length of the vegetation period of the variety. The growing season ranges from 70-100 days.

Long-day flax is a moisture-loving plant of a long day. Transpiration coefficient 400-450. Seeds, when swollen in the soil, absorb at least 100% of water in relation to their own weight. It is especially demanding on moisture during the period of budding - flowering, when soil moisture of about 70% HB is required to form a high yield. However, frequent rains after flowering are unfavorable: flax can lie down and be affected by fungal diseases. In areas with a close level of groundwater, flax succeeds poorly. During the ripening period, dry, moderately warm and sunny weather is most favorable.

In the development of fiber flax, the following phases are distinguished: germination, "herringbone", budding, flowering and ripening. In the initial period (about 1 month), flax grows very slowly. The most vigorous growth is observed before budding and in the budding phase, when the daily growth reaches 4-5 cm. At this time, it is especially important to create favorable conditions for nutrition and water supply. At the end of budding and the beginning of flowering, flax growth slows down, and by the end of flowering it stops. Therefore, agricultural practices that delay flowering (fertilizing, regulating the water regime, etc.) contribute to stem elongation and fiber quality. In a short (2 weeks) period of enhanced growth, flax consumes more than half of the total amount of nutrients.

The critical period of nitrogen demand is observed from the “herringbone” phase to budding, in phosphorus - in the initial period of growth up to the phase of 5-6 pairs of leaves, in potassium - in the first 20 days of life. With a lack of essential nutrients during these periods, the yield of flax is sharply reduced. The maximum consumption of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium was noted in the budding phase (before flowering), as well as during the formation of seeds.

Due to the weak assimilation ability of flax roots and the short period of intensive stem growth, flax is very demanding on soil fertility. It requires soils of medium cohesion (medium loam), sufficiently moist, fertile and well aerated, free from weeds. Light sandy loam and sandy soils are less suitable for fiber flax. Heavy, clayey, cold, prone to flooding and the formation of a soil crust, as well as acidic, waterlogged soils with a close standing of groundwater, without a radical improvement, are of little use for flax cultivation. A slightly acidic soil reaction is preferred - pH 5.9-6.3.

When flax is placed on good predecessors, with liming and the right fertilization system, flax produces high yields of good fiber in a wide variety of podzolic soils. On soils with excess lime content, the fiber is coarse and brittle. On poor soils, fiber flax plants grow low, and on rich soils they lie down.

The All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Flax has developed an intensive technology for the cultivation of fiber flax. Its successful and complete application is expected to produce 0.55-0.8 t/ha of flax fiber and 0.45-0.5 t/ha of seeds. This technology includes: concentration of fiber flax sowing in specialized farms that sow flax in 2-3 crop rotations, placing flax after the best predecessors, applying mineral and organic fertilizers in the crop rotation in scientifically justified doses calculated for the planned crop, basic tillage according to the semi-fallow type , improved pre-sowing tillage, sowing at optimal times with seeds of the first and second classes with a seeding rate of 18-22 million / ha of germinating seeds, the use of an integrated plant protection system, pre-harvest desiccation, mechanized harvesting and the sale of at least 50% of the crop in the form of straw according to scheme field - plant, expanding the use of roll harvesting technology. The organization of production on the basis of self-financing, brigade and family contracts or a lease provides the best results from the use of intensive fiber flax cultivation technology.

Place in crop rotation. Fiber flax should not be returned to its original place earlier than after 7-8 years.

On cultivated fields, when applying organo-mineral fertilizers and using herbicides, fiber flax gives high yields after fertilized winter crops, grain legumes, potatoes, sugar beet, clover layer or a mixture of clover with timothy grass, layer rotation and other predecessors. Under the conditions of increased agricultural culture and high soil fertility, perennial grasses, as predecessors of flax, are inferior to other predecessors. After rye, potatoes and peas, flax stalks are more even, do not lie down, and are suitable for mechanized harvesting.

In Western Europe, on cultivated and well-fertilized soils, it is avoided to sow flax directly on a clover layer. In the Netherlands, wheat, barley, rye, potatoes, corn, sugar beets, etc. are considered the best predecessors of flax. In Belgium, it is recommended to sow flax after cereals, beets or chicory. In these countries, they avoid placing flax on clover due to an excess of nitrogen nutrition (coarse branching straw is obtained, flax lodges).

Flax slightly depletes the soil, after which winter wheat and rye, spring wheat and other spring grains, buckwheat, potatoes and beets can be placed in the crop rotation.

Soil cultivation. Early autumn plowing of fallow land and a layer of perennial grasses contributes to an increase in the yield and quality of fiber flax fiber. The main tillage for flax is carried out in two versions: traditional and semi-fallow. The first option includes stubble plowing and autumn plowing, the second - autumn plowing and several continuous tillage of the field with a cultivator.

Peeling is carried out immediately after harvesting the predecessor, it stimulates the germination of weed seeds, which are destroyed by subsequent plowing. On fields littered mainly with annual weeds, plowing is usually carried out with LDG-10 disc cultivators to a depth of 6-8 cm. On fields littered with root weeds, plowing is carried out to a depth of 12-14 cm on light soils and 10-12 cm on heavy soils.

At the same time, on fields littered only with root weeds, a share plow-cultivator PPL-10-25 is used, and on fields littered with couch grass, heavy disc harrows BDT-3.0 or BDT-7.0 are used in two tracks. When placing flax after perennial grasses, the layer is disked with a heavy disc harrow BDT-3.0 and plowing with plows with skimmers.

When preparing the soil according to the semi-fallow type (with early harvesting of the predecessor), soil cultivation begins with plowing with plows with skimmers to the depth of the arable layer. In dry weather, the plow works in conjunction with a ring-spur roller, and in wet weather, with heavy harrows. For the time remaining before frost, 2-3 cultivations are carried out to a depth of 10-14 cm in a diagonal direction with respect to the direction of plowing. In this case, the KPS-4 cultivator with spring paws is used in an aggregate with harrows. The last cultivation is carried out 10-15 days before frost to a depth of 8-10 cm with a KPS-4 cultivator equipped with lancet shares and without harrows.

In fields heavily littered with couch grass, herbicides are additionally used in accordance with the industry regulations, which are applied along the raised fallow and covered with harrows or cultivators during the first processing of the semi-fallow.

In spring, plowing is harrowed on sandy and light loamy soils or cultivated on heavy loamy soils and soils with a high moisture content to a depth of 8-10 cm.

Pre-sowing preparation of sandy loamy soils is carried out with the help of heavy toothed harrows operating in a two-row hitch, and the field is cultivated in mutually intersecting directions. On light and medium loams, the use of needle (BIG-ZA) and spring (BP-8) harrows is effective. On medium and heavy loams and clay soils, pre-sowing soil preparation is carried out by cultivators to a depth of 5-7 cm.

To level the surface of the field on the eve of sowing flax, the soil is rolled with smooth water-filled rollers-and ZKVG-1.4, on heavy soils, the ring-spur roller ZKKSH-6 is used. Heavily moist, heavy soils should not be rolled. In such fields, the soil is leveled with a hitch of ShB-2.5 harrows.

The use of combined units RVK-3.6 (ripper-leveller-skating rink) and VIP-5.6 (leveller-chopper-packer) for pre-sowing tillage in fields not littered with wheatgrass makes it possible to carry out high-quality soil preparation for flax in one pass.

Fertilizer. Flax is quite picky about fertilizer. When full mineral fertilizer is applied, the yield of flax straw increases by 0.4-0.8 t/ha. The approximate average removal of the main nutrients by flax plants per 1 ton of straw with seeds is: N - 10-14 kg, P2O5 - 4.5-7.5, K2O - 11-17.5 kg. The increase in straw yield on soddy-podzolic soils is 5-7 kg per 1 kg of a.i. fertilizers.

In the flax fertilization system, it is necessary to take into account the weak assimilation capacity of its root system, high sensitivity to a high concentration of soil solution, as well as a relatively short vegetation period of this crop.

When applying manure (up to 30-40 t/ha) together with phosphate rock (0.4-0.6 t) and potassium chloride (0.15-0.2 t) for previous winter or tilled crops, the flax yield increases by 25 -30% or more. Lupine, seradella, vetch, and rapeseed sown stubble can be used as green fertilizer.

It is better not to apply manure and composts directly under flax to avoid lodging of plants and uneven stems, as well as a decrease in fiber yield due to the greater coarseness of the stems. On soils poor in organic matter, peat-manure or manure-phosphorite compost can be used.

Phosphorus (P60-100) and potash (K60-120) fertilizers should be applied under plowing. Nitrogen fertilizers (N30-45) are applied in spring; when properly combined with phosphorus-potassium, they significantly increase the yield of fiber and its quality.

When determining the doses of mineral fertilizers, one should take into account the agrochemical indicators of the soil, the degree of its fertility, cultivation, the planned harvest and other factors (Table 51).

According to VNIIL, on poorly cultivated soils, 1 part of nitrogen in fertilizer for flax should account for 2 parts of phosphorus and potassium, on medium cultivated soils - 3 parts each, on highly cultivated soils - 4-6. An excess of nitrogen can cause lodging and branching of flax, as well as a decrease in fiber yield. Nitrogen fertilizers are usually applied before sowing and in top dressing in the form of ammonium nitrate, urea; ammonium sulphate also has a good effect

In farms that have achieved a noticeable increase in soil fertility, nitrogen fertilizers are not applied directly under flax, but are limited to selective feeding as necessary.

Phosphorus fertilizers help accelerate the maturation of flax and improve the quality of the fiber. In this case, special attention should be paid to the forms of phosphate fertilizers. Excess superphosphate increases the acidity of the soil and can inhibit plants. The most suitable for flax, especially on acidic soils, phosphate rock, double superphosphate, boric superphosphate and precipitate. Good results are also obtained when using superphosphate mixed with phosphate rock.

The introduction of potash fertilizers (potassium chloride, potassium salt, potassium sulphate, potassium magnesia) increases the yield and quality of the fiber, mitigates the negative effect of excess nitrogen nutrition, and increases the resistance of the stems to lodging. It is effective to use complex fertilizers when fertilizing flax: ammophos, nitrophoska, nitroammophoska. It is not recommended to apply lime directly under flax in order to avoid reducing the yield and quality of the fiber.

The experiments of VNIIL proved the significant effectiveness of boron fertilizers (0.4-0.7 kg of pure boron per 1 ha), applied under plowing or under spring harrowing of fallow. Boron contributes to the growth of yields, weakens the negative effect of excess lime on flax, and reduces damage to plants by bacterial diseases. Boric fertilizers should be used on calcareous podzolic and marshy soils, as well as on newly developed lands.

Good results on flax crops are ensured by the introduction of ammophos or granulated superphosphate into the rows when sowing (10-12 kg of N and P2O5 per 1 ha).

It is important to ensure a uniform distribution of fertilizers in the soil so that there is no variegation of the flax stem (uneven ripening, different heights and branching of plants).

Great importance is attached to top dressing of flax during the growing season. To do this, use ammonium nitrate or ammonium sulphate (20-30 kg N), superphosphate (30-40 kg P2O5), potassium chloride (30 kg K2O per 1 ha) or complex fertilizers. Top dressing is carried out with three seedling heights of 6-8 cm (no later than 20 days after their appearance). Delay in nitrogen fertilization can lead to stretching of flowering and uneven ripening. Often, flax is fed only with phosphate fertilizers.

At present, in flax-sowing farms, 0.8-1 tons of mineral fertilizers are applied per 1 ha of fiber flax. In flax crop rotations, VNIIL recommends applying organic fertilizers (manure and composts) in combination with mineral fertilizers in two fields - for fallow and potatoes, and mineral fertilizers - annually for all crops.

Sowing. For sowing, seeds of the best zoned varieties should be used that meet the requirements of the sowing standard of the first and second classes (purity 99-98%, germination 95-90%, moisture content 12%). Sowing seeds containing an admixture of dodder and other malicious weeds is prohibited. Seeds should be full-weight, even, shiny and oily to the touch, healthy, with high germination vigor. To increase the germination energy and field germination, flax seeds are subjected to air-thermal heating (for 5-7 days) in open areas or in well-ventilated areas (for 8-10 days) 10-15 days before sowing.

The practice of the advanced collective farms has established a great advantage early dates sowing flax in soil heated at a depth of 10 cm to 7-8°C. With early sowing, plants use soil moisture more fully, are less affected by fungal diseases and earthen flea, and the fiber is of better quality. According to the TSCA experiments, when flax was sown on May 13, the yield of trust was 20% higher than when flax was sown on June 9. With early sowing, only 2.3% of seedlings were damaged by fleas, and with late sowing - 34.6%. However, too early sowing, when frosts are still possible, as well as sowing seeds in very damp, poorly cut soil, should be avoided.

To evenly place the seeds of fiber flax, they are sown with narrow-row flax seeders (SZL-3.6) with a row spacing of 7.5 cm. The sowing depth of flax seeds is 1.5-3 cm, the seeding rate is 20-25 million viable seeds 120 kg) per 1 ha. In varieties prone to lodging, the seeding rate is somewhat reduced. For seed purposes, fiber flax is sown in a wide-row (45 cm) or tape method (45x7.5x7.5 cm) at a reduced rate.

Crop care. Under favorable conditions, flax seedlings appear 5 days after sowing. When it rains, a crust may form, delaying the emergence of seedlings. It is destroyed with a light sowing, rotary or mesh harrow, ring-spur roller.

It is very important to protect fiber flax from weeds that reduce its yield and fiber quality. The most common weeds of flax crops include spring weeds - wild radish, white gauze, zebra pikulnik, bindweed mountaineer, flax chaff, flax toriza, tenacious bedstraw. There are also wintering weeds - blue cornflower, odorless chamomile, field yarutka. The most common perennial weeds are: couch grass, pink thistle, yellow thistle.

The main measures for weed control are agrotechnical: the choice of a good predecessor, semi-steam tillage, good seed cleaning on the SOM-ZOO seed cleaning machine and the EMS-1A electromagnetic machine.

Pests cause great harm to flax. This is a linen flea, a linen tripe, a linen codling moth, a scoop-gamma. The following diseases of fiber flax are common: rust, fusarium, polysporiosis, bacteriosis, anthracnose, etc. They reduce plant productivity and fiber quality. It is important to sow resistant varieties, treat seeds, and strictly comply with agrotechnical requirements: crop rotation, early sowing, destruction of flax residues in the field, etc.

Cleaning. The overall result in flax growing depends on the quality and timely harvesting.

The following phases of flax ripeness are distinguished.

Green ripeness (green flax). Flax stems and bolls are green, and the leaves of the lower third of the stem begin to turn yellow. Seeds in boxes are soft, in a state of milky ripeness. The fiber bundles have formed, but the fibrils are not yet sufficiently completed.

When harvesting flax in the phase of green ripeness, a reduced yield of not very strong, but thin, shiny fiber is obtained, suitable for thin products (lace, cambric).

Early yellow ripeness. Flax crops have a light yellow color. The leaves of the lower third of the stems turn brown and crumble, while the rest turn yellow, wither, and only in the upper part of the stem they still remain greenish. Capsules also have greenish veins. The seeds in them are in the phase of wax ripeness. The fiber has formed, but not yet coarsened, the fibers are sufficiently completed. When harvested in this phase, the fiber is soft, silky and strong enough. The seeds, although not fully ripe, are quite suitable not only for technical purposes, but also for sowing.

Yellow ripeness. Comes in 5-7 days after early yellow ripeness. Crops turn yellow. The leaves of the lower half of the stems turn brown and crumble, and in the upper half they are yellow, wilted. The bolls turn yellow and partially turn brown. The seeds in them harden and have a normal color for the variety. The fiber in the lower part of the stems begins to coarsen (lignify).

Full ripeness. Stems and bolls turn brown. Most of the leaves have already fallen off. Seeds in boxes are fully ripe, hardened and noisy when shaken. The fiber is already overripe, especially in the lower part of the stem, becomes somewhat lignified, loses elasticity and becomes hard and dry.

In fiber culture, fiber flax is usually harvested in the phase of early yellow ripeness, and in the seed plots - in the phase of yellow ripeness.

Pre-harvest desiccation of fiber flax crops has become widespread. Drying flax plants with desiccants while still in the vine makes it possible to exclude such processes as field drying and ripening of flax in sheaves (when using seeds for sowing).

Harvesting fiber flax is a complex and time-consuming process. Depending on the conditions, flax is harvested using a combine, separate or sheaf method.

The combine harvesting method has become the main one; it is carried out by flax harvesters LK-4A with a spreading device and LKV-4A with a sheaf binder. Both combines are equipped with a stripping device. Flax harvesters are aggregated with the MTZ tractor. The combine harvesting method includes the following technological operations: pulling plants, stripping seed pods, tying straw into sheaves or spreading it with a ribbon on a flax, collecting a heap (boxes, seeds, impurities) into tractor trailers. Fibrous products are sold in the form of straw or straw. When selling straw, cleaning can be carried out in two ways.

According to the first option, flax is pulled by a combine with a knitting machine. The combed straw, tied into sheaves, is set for natural drying in headstock and after 6-10 days is taken to the flax mill. For the selection and loading of sheaves, a pick-up loader of sheaves PPS-3 is used.

According to the second option, flax is pulled by a combine with a spreading device. After 4-6 days of drying, the straw spread with a ribbon is lifted and knitted into sheaves with a PTN-1 picker with a knitting machine or pressed into rolls with a converted PRP-1.6 round baler. Loading rolls in vehicles carried out by a front-end loader PF-0.5 with a device for flax.

For the preparation of trusts, flax, pulled out and spread with ribbons, is left for aging. In order to improve the conditions of aging, the trusts carry out two additional receptions to the traditional technology. Firstly, in the spring, along with the sowing of flax, some perennial cereal grass of the winter type (meadow fescue, perennial ryegrass) or creeping clover is sown. Linen is spread on the grass cover. Secondly, in order to ensure uniform maturation in the tape, to achieve an even color of the stems, as well as to speed up the maturation and prevent the tape from overgrowing with grass, it is wrapped 3-4 and 10-20 days after spreading and before raising the finished trust. This operation is carried out with a turner OSN-1, which is hung on a T-25A tractor.

Dry straw (moisture content not more than 20%) is lifted and knitted into sheaves with a PTN-1 straw baler or formed into rolls with a PRP-1.6 baler.

In inclement weather, with high humidity, trusts use the PNP-3 pick-up-portioner to prevent its overstaying. The trust collected in a portion is knitted by hand into sheaves, which are placed for natural drying in cones or tents.

High demands are placed on the quality of combine harvesters: the cleanliness of pulling must be at least 99%, the cleanliness of the tow must be at least 98, the loss of seeds must not exceed 4%. Be sure to seal the combines.

The flax heap obtained after stripping has a complex fractional composition, its moisture content at the beginning of harvesting is 35-60%. In order to avoid self-heating and spoilage of seeds, flax heaps received from the field are immediately dried with heated or atmospheric air at special drying points. Dry heap is processed on a heap-cutting machine threshing machine MV-2.5A, and then fed to seed-cleaning machines: SM-4, OS-4.5A, flax-cleaning hill OSG-0.2A, magnetic seed-cleaning machine EMS-1A or SMShch-0.4, "Petkus-Giant" K-531/1. During long-term storage, the moisture content of seeds should not exceed 8-12%.

Primary processing of flax fiber. The task of the primary processing of flax straw is the most complete (lossless) separation of the fiber without deteriorating its quality. Straw is sorted by length, thickness, color and other features (2-3 grades). Plants affected by rust, fusarium and other diseases are harvested and processed separately from healthy ones. In farms, to isolate fiber from the stems, dew or water flax lobe is used, and in factories - thermal lobe, as well as chemical treatment in alkaline solutions.

flax trust(soaked flax straw), depending on the content of fiber in it, its color, strength and other quality indicators are divided into numbers: 4; 3.5; 2.5; 2; 1.75;1.5; 1.25; 1.0; 0.75 and 0.5. The number of flax straws is determined organoleptically upon delivery, comparing the selected sheaves with standards. Upon delivery, the flax straw must be uniform in length, with a moisture content of not more than 20%, a contamination of not more than 5 and a fiber content in the trust of at least 11%.

Depending on the quality, flax straw is divided into the following numbers: 5; 4.5; 3.5; 3; 2.5; 2; 1.75; 1.5; 1.25; 1.0; 0.75 and 0.5. Flax straw of the last two numbers (0.75 and 0.5) is not accepted by flax mills.

In order to isolate the pure fiber from the trust, it is necessary to remove the bonfire (the wood of the stems). For this, roller grinders are used. The resulting raw fiber is separated from the remnants of the fire on scutching machines. A good fiber should be fire-free, tear-resistant, long, thin, soft, greasy to the touch, heavy and uniform in color (light silver, white).

The yield of pure fiber is usually not less than 15% of the mass of straw or not less than 20% of the mass of trust. Long flax fiber according to GOST 10330-76, depending on the quality, is divided into grades indicated by numbers: 6, 7, 8, 9, 10.11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32. Short fiber is divided into numbers: 12, 10, 8, 6, 4, 3, 2. Flax fiber with a moisture content of 16% or more, which has foreign impurities and a putrefactive odor, is not accepted.

Features of agricultural technology of oil flax . The highest oil content (up to 46-48%) has curly flax seeds from the highlands of Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Armenia. Len-curly (horn) has a limited distribution. Most often, flax is used to obtain seeds for oil.

Curly flax and mezheumok are less demanding on moisture and soil fertility than fiber flax. They are cultivated in arid steppe regions, as well as in foothill and mountainous regions with sufficient moisture. The best soils for oilseed flax are chernozems that are free of weeds. It works well on chestnut soils. Soils prone to swamping, heavy, clayey, and solonetsous are of little use for its cultivation.

The best place for sowing oilseed flax is a deposit and a layer of perennial grasses. Good predecessors are winter grains, grain legumes, melons, corn and other tilled crops. Autumn plowing should be carried out as early as possible with preliminary stubble peeling (15-20 days before plowing). Spring tillage should be aimed at preserving moisture, loosening the seed layer and leveling the soil.

Phosphorus and potash fertilizers should be applied under autumn plowing in the doses adopted for grain crops. A good result is the introduction of granulated superphosphate into the rows when sowing flax (seed yield increases by 0.3 t/ha).

Oilseed flax is sown with conventional grain planters simultaneously with early grain breads. In the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia, stubble crops of flax are also quite successful, yielding 0.6-0.8 tons / ha of seeds and more. The method of sowing oil flax is narrow-row or ordinary ordinary. The seeding rate is 40-60 kg/ha. In very dry conditions (Kazakhstan), sometimes wide-row crops are used, while the seeding rate is reduced to 30-20 kg/ha. With the bilateral use of flax - mezheumka (for fiber and seeds), the seeding rate is increased by 10-15 kg. The depth of sowing seeds is 4-5 cm.

In areas where flax stalks are not used for fiber, harvesting is carried out at the beginning of full ripeness by combines at a low cut. With the bilateral use of oil flax, it is pulled in the phase of yellow ripeness, followed by the ripening of seeds in sheaves and threshing them on special flax threshers. Seeds cleaned on sorting and flax trieres are stored at a moisture content of no more than 11%.

2017-02-03 Igor Novitsky

In former times, rye was the main grain crop in Europe. Today, wheat has taken its role, while rye is content with the third place in terms of grain harvest, yielding even to barley. However, taking into account its high endurance and adaptability to a cold climate, it remains a rather important agricultural plant for Russia.

Origin and distribution of rye

Cultural rye is an annual (biennial) herbaceous plant of the Cereal family. Along with wheat, it is an important cereal crop in Europe and North America.

The history of the origin and cultivation of rye is controversial. It is believed that it comes from wild rye, which was a weed in wheat crops. As the economic characteristics of wheat improved, so did rye. However, there is an alternative point of view, according to which rye quickly acquired the status of an independent cereal crop, which competed with wheat in the northern regions of Europe.

It is known for certain that at least in the early Middle Ages, rye was already actively cultivated throughout the European continent. Moreover, it was this crop that was the main cereal, since heat-loving wheat gave smaller yields in the cold European climate. Black rye bread was the basis of the diet of Europeans, including the Eastern Slavs. White wheat bread, on the contrary, was available only to the rich strata of the then society. In fact, the word bread in Rus' originally referred specifically to rye bread, while, speaking of wheat, the term “white bread” was necessarily used.

Another proof that rye was the main grain crop is our language. Regions where high yields of cereal crops are consistently harvested are what we call a granary. In the Russian Empire, Ukraine was called a granary, in modern Russia - the Kuban and the Volga region. So the word "granary" is a derivative of "zhito", which in the Old Russian language meant "crops", or "bread" (which is in the field). And in the modern Ukrainian language, which is much closer to Old Russian than modern Russian, “zhito” is rye.

The popularity of rye in Europe was due to its high frost resistance, far exceeding that of wheat. This was very important, since the death of the crop from frost meant starvation and death. That is why the poor peasants of the pre-industrial era preferred rye to wheat.

However, landowners, latifundists and other land barons of that time also preferred rye. This crop has always been the basis of the grain export of the Russian Empire. Wheat remained in secondary roles.

The importance of rye as the number one grain crop began to decline in the 19th century, and in the 20th century wheat in Europe finally came out on top. This was due both to the emergence of more advanced varieties of wheat that could better tolerate winter frosts, and to the development of global food trade and the general decline in the role of agriculture in the economy of European countries. Now, even in the event of a crop failure, famine did not threaten the Europeans, since grain could be bought in other regions of the world.

Also purely psychological factors influenced the growth in popularity of wheat. Black rye bread had a strong reputation as food for the poor, so as the prosperity of the European population grew, people preferred to switch to more "prestigious" white bread. By the way, in the USSR, the mass transition of collective farms from rye to wheat occurred in the 40-50s, when Stalin directly stated that the Soviet people should eat white, not black bread.

In the post-Soviet era, the area under rye in Russia continued to decline, but the reasons were already purely economic. As interest in wheat skyrocketed in the 20th century and rye fell off, breeders greatly increased the productivity of wheat varieties, while rye varieties changed much less. As a result, it is much more profitable to grow wheat today than rye.

Nevertheless, Russia remains in the top three world leaders in rye production. From 2 to 3.5 million tons of rye grain are harvested annually in our country. Only Poland (about 3 million tons) and Germany (about 4 million tons) have comparable figures. From 500 thousand tons to 1 million tons are also collected annually in Belarus, Ukraine and China.

Economic importance of rye

Despite the crushing defeat in the struggle for the status of the main grain crop, rye still remains an important source of bread flour not only in Russia, but also in other European countries mentioned above. Black rye bread can still be bought at any store or bakery. And although its market share is only about 10%, many Russians prefer it. For comparison, in the 1930s, 70% of the bread produced in the USSR was made from rye flour.

Before beer became the number one low-alcohol drink in Russia, this status was held by kvass. At the same time, most traditional kvass recipes are based on the use of rye bread.

Rye grain also finds other uses in the food industry. For example, starch is obtained from it, and it is also used as a raw material in the production of alcohol.

As a grain crop, rye is an excellent source of feed for farm animals. Rye grain can be used as forage, and young green stems can replace green livestock feed.

Finally, this is perhaps the best green manure culture. Every farmer knows that there is no easier and cheaper way to suppress the development of weeds in a heavily polluted field (for example, plowed virgin land) than to sow it with rye. Due to its rapid development, rye literally suppresses any weeds and diseases of cultivated plants. At the same time, it has a significant loosening effect on the soil, making it more permeable to water and air. This culture is also very effective in the fight against many pests.

Rye varieties

Today, more than 50 varieties are approved for cultivation in Russia. The overwhelming majority of them are winter rye, which gives higher yields than spring rye.

Since this crop tolerates frosts down to -35 degrees, there is practically no need for spring varieties. Hence their scarcity. To date, the cultivation of spring rye is practiced only in Central Siberia, Transbaikalia and Yakutia, where winters are so severe that even hardy winter rye freezes out.

Problems and prospects of growing rye in Russia

In 2016, Russian agricultural enterprises harvested more than 2.5 million tons of rye grain (against 2 million tons in 2015 and 3.3 million tons in 2014). The main producing regions are:

Volga region. These are, first of all, the republics of Bashkiria and Tatarstan, each producing 20% of the total Russian harvest.
Orenburg region - about 10%.
Saratov region - about 7%.
Kirov region - 5%.
Volgograd region - 5%.

As you can see, the Kuban and the North Caucasus practically do not grow rye. This is due to the fact that natural and climatic conditions there make it possible to grow much more productive and valuable crops, so farmers prefer not to waste energy and resources on rye that is less profitable for them.

In general, by the beginning of the 21st century, rye production in Russia had significantly decreased even compared to Soviet times (in 1990, the rye harvest in the RSFSR amounted to 16.4 million tons). This is mainly due to the fact that the state no longer regulates the structure of crops, and the population does not show much interest in rye bread. As mentioned earlier, only about 10% of bread in Russia is rye bread. At the same time, the share of rye in the structure of grain crops is even lower - about 3%.

Experts assure that in the medium term, no turning point in the current situation should be expected. There is no reason for a change in the consumer sentiment of the population in the bread market. The second largest domestic consumer of rye - the alcohol industry - also shows interest in this crop only in those cases when its prices are lower than those of wheat.

At the same time, the export potential of rye today is completely incomparable with the realities of the 19th century and earlier times. Rye grain is much less in demand than wheat. It is consumed mainly by Europeans, and in most cases they manage with their own harvest. With a global harvest of rye of about 14 million tons, no more than 500 thousand tons turn out to be in international trade.

Thus, rye today is a niche crop, the low demand for which does not allow it to be grown on a large scale. In fact, the Russian collection at the level of 2-3 million tons per year generally meets the needs of the market.

Rye cultivation technology

Since the demand for rye is relatively low, it makes sense to grow it for grain mainly in those regions where the cultivation of wheat and other more profitable crops is difficult. For example, rye is much more resistant to winter frosts and increased soil acidity.

Due to the fact that this crop is an excellent green manure, it is recommended to sow rye seeds after perennial grasses, early varieties of vegetables, silage corn, fiber flax and other plants, after which many weeds remain. But bad predecessors for her are perennial legumes. In general, rye is less demanding on the place in the crop rotation and can be sown even after wheat.

Pre-sowing cultivation of land for rye is carried out by the semi-fallow method. Having collected the predecessor, the field must be processed twice. It is also recommended to process the seed material in order to protect it from stem smut, root rot and snow mold. It is important to note that last year's grain should be taken for sowing, as fresh has a low germination rate.

When to sow winter rye, of course, depends on the climatic region:

In the Non-Black Earth region, it is sown in mid-August.
In the Central Black Earth Region and in the southeastern regions - the entire second half of August.
In the Kuban and the North Caucasus, rye is sown from the end of September to the beginning of the second decade of October.

Seeding rates also vary by region:

5–6 million pieces per 1 ha in the Central Chernozem region;
6–7 million pieces per 1 ha in the Non-Chernozem region;
4–6 million pieces per 1 ha in the Volga region;
6–6.5 million pieces per 1 ha in Siberia and the Urals.

When sowing rye on a busy fallow, the seeding rate should be increased by 15–20%.

In order for rye seeds to germinate better, it is recommended to use rolling. The need for this agricultural technique is especially great if the field is not sufficiently moistened. But on wet or heavy soil, rolling, on the contrary, is not permissible, as it will cause the formation of an excessively dense surface layer of soil, which will make it difficult for seedlings to emerge.

It is possible to increase the survival of seedlings in the winter by applying fertilizers. Phosphorus-potassium mixtures give a particularly good effect. But an excess of nitrogen fertilizers on initial stage growth only reduces the resistance of rye to frost.

Long-term practice shows that snow retention measures have a beneficial effect on rye yields. The lack of snow cover reduces this figure by 4 centners per hectare or more.

Although rye is a fairly hardy crop, crops can suffer from a variety of diseases and pests. For this reason, it is important to constantly monitor the condition of crops and take timely action in case of problems.

Winter rye should be harvested 1-2 weeks earlier than wheat. If direct harvesting is used, then it begins when the grain is fully ripe. With two-phase harvesting, mowing is carried out at the moment of wax ripeness, and threshing begins a few days later. Due to the fact that ripe rye crumbles very quickly, it is important to harvest as soon as possible.